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Chittagong Hill Tracts

Coordinates: 22°33′00″N 92°17′00″E / 22.5500°N 92.2833°E / 22.5500; 92.2833
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Chittagong Hill Tracts
পার্বত্য চট্টগ্রাম
Kaptai National Park
Kaptai National Park
The three current Chittagong Hill Tracts statistical districts combined shown within Bangladesh.
The three current Chittagong Hill Tracts statistical districts combined shown within Bangladesh.
Country Bangladesh
DivisionChittagong Division
DistrictsBandarban • Khagrachhari • Rangamati
Upazilas
Area
 • Total
13,344.3 km2 (5,152.3 sq mi)
 • Land12,052.8 km2 (4,653.6 sq mi)
 • Water1,291.5 km2 (498.7 sq mi)
Elevation
17 m (56 ft)
Population
 (2022)
 • Total
1,842,815
 • Density140/km2 (360/sq mi)
Time zoneBST
 • Summer (DST)+06:00

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (Bengali: পার্বত্য চট্টগ্রাম, romanized: Pārbôtyô Côṭṭôgrām), often shortened to simply the Hill Tracts and abbreviated to CHT, refers to the three hilly districts within the Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh, bordering India and Myanmar (Burma) in the east: Khagrachhari, Rangamati, and Bandarban. Covering 13,295 square kilometres (5,133 sq mi), CHT is an extensively hilly area and home to a variety of tribal peoples in Bangladesh. The CHT were divided by the British in the 19th century into three tribal chieftaincies, the Chakma Circle, the Mong Circle and the Bohmong Circle. They formed a single district until 1984, when they were divided into three separate districts.[1]

Geography

[edit]
See also: Rangamati Hill District § Geography

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) is a extensive hilly area in Bangladesh, lie in the southeastern part of the country (210 25' N to 230 45' N latitude and 910 54' E to 920 50' E longitude) bordering the Indian state of Tripura on the north, Rakhine State of Myanmar on the south, Chin state of Myanmar and Indian state Mizoram on the east, Chittagong District and Cox's Bazar District on the west. The area of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is about 13,184 km2, which is approximately one-tenth of the total area of Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts combine three hilly districts of Bangladesh: Rangamati, Khagrachhari and Bandarban districts.[2]

Keokradong, the highest peak of the Bangladesh situated in the region.

The mountainous rugged terrain with deep forests, lakes and falls gives it a different character from the rest of Bangladesh. Karnaphuli River, Sangu River are the main river of CHT.

Saka Haphong, the highest peak of Bangladesh, is located here. Though officially Tazing Dong is declared as the highest peak, it is also located here. Keokradong is another famous peak in this area.

Topography

[edit]

The landscape of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is predominantly hilly, featuring a series of parallel ridges with altitudes ranging from 200 to over 1,000 meters above sea level. The highest peak in Bangladesh, Keokradong (986 meters), is located in Bandarban district. The terrain consists of steep slopes, narrow valleys, and occasional flatlands, making it distinct from the rest of Bangladesh’s floodplains.

The Kaptai lake, situated in the middle of the region.

The Chittagong Hill Tracts are traversed by several important rivers, the largest being the Karnaphuli River, which originates in the hills and flows into the Bay of Bengal. The Kaptai Dam, built on the Karnaphuli River, has created Kaptai Lake, the largest artificial lake in Bangladesh. Other significant rivers include the Sangu, Matamuhuri, and Feni Rivers.

The region is home to tropical and subtropical evergreen forests, which support a rich diversity of flora and fauna. The forests include species such as teak, garjan, and bamboo. The wildlife of CHT features mammals like elephants, leopards, and deer, along with a variety of bird species. However, deforestation and human activities have led to ecological challenges in recent years.

The soil in the Chittagong Hill Tracts is mostly red and yellow sandy loam, which is less fertile compared to the alluvial soils of the Bangladeshi plains. Due to the steep slopes, jhum (slash-and-burn) cultivation is traditionally practiced by the indigenous communities. However, efforts are being made to introduce sustainable agricultural methods to prevent soil erosion and land degradation.

Dumlong peak

Natural Resources

[edit]

The region is rich in natural resources, including timber, bamboo, and various minerals. Kaptai Lake has also become an important source of hydroelectric power, contributing to Bangladesh’s energy supply. However, environmental concerns have been raised due to deforestation, resource extraction, and changes in land use.

Land use and environment

[edit]

Tobacco cultivation

[edit]

Tobacco cultivation is damaging the ecology of the area, with the loss of indigenous trees such as Chukrasia tabularis (Indian mahogany), and soil fertility.

Most of the farmers of Rangamati, Bandarban, and Khagrachhari have been losing their interest in cultivating their own indigenous crops after defaulting on loans provided by tobacco companies.[3]

Environmental issues

[edit]
Nilachol, Bandarban

Like other mountainous areas in South and Southeast Asia, the Chittagong Hill Tracts are undergoing deforestation and land degradation arising from environmentally unsuitable activities such as tobacco cultivation in sloping land, shifting cultivation and logging.[4] Shifting cultivation, also known as slash-and-burn agriculture or swidden cultivation, embraces a large variety of primitive forms of agriculture. It is a unique stage in the evolution from hunting and food gathering to sedentary farming. Humankind began to change its mode of life from food gatherer to food producer about 7000 B.C. by adopting shifting cultivation. Some form of shifting cultivation has been practised in most parts of the world, but more intensive forms of agriculture have subsequently replaced it.[5]

Bamboo Transportation to Karnaphuli Paper Mills, Kaptai, Rangamati

The present shifting cultivation system with short fallow periods in the Chittagong Hill Tracts has accelerated erosion, land degradation, deforestation, and impoverishment of tribal people in CHT. If the present state of degradation is continued, most of the areas under shifting cultivation will be severely degraded[6] and future generations will face more difficulties in eking out their livelihoods on further degraded land, although there is some scope for shifting cultivators to leave the degraded fields and move to other areas. It is estimated that on average eight hectares of land is necessary for the sustenance of a family in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. If this ratio is adopted, 1,240,000 ha land is required to sustain the present population; however, the total land available, excluding the reserve forest, is 928,000 ha. Shifting cultivation, therefore, cannot fulfill even the subsistence requirements of the people. In such a situation, either large non-farm employment opportunities need to be created or more productive land-use systems need to be developed and adopted. Given the sluggish growth of the economy, there is limited scope for generating adequate non-farming employment opportunities in the near future. It is, therefore, imperative to replace the present shifting cultivation system with more productive and sustainable land use systems to enable people to secure their livelihoods.[7]

Climate

[edit]

The region experiences a tropical monsoon climate, with high temperatures and significant seasonal variations in precipitation. Annual rainfall averages between 2,000 and 3,500 millimeters, mostly occurring during the monsoon season from June to September. Winters are mild and dry, while summers are hot and humid.[8]

Climate data for Chittagong Hill Tracts, 2005
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 31.7
(89.1) 		35.0
(95.0) 		37.8
(100.0) 		38.9
(102.0) 		42.2
(108.0) 		37.8
(100.0) 		35.6
(96.1) 		37.7
(99.9) 		35.6
(96.1) 		35.6
(96.1) 		33.3
(91.9) 		31.7
(89.1) 		36.2
(97.2)
Daily mean °C (°F) 20.5
(68.9) 		22.8
(73.0) 		26.5
(79.7) 		28.5
(83.3) 		28.8
(83.8) 		28.1
(82.6) 		27.7
(81.9) 		28.0
(82.4) 		28.5
(83.3) 		27.7
(81.9) 		25.0
(77.0) 		21.8
(71.2) 		26.2
(79.2)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 6.7
(44.1) 		7.2
(45.0) 		11.1
(52.0) 		17.2
(63.0) 		19.4
(66.9) 		20.6
(69.1) 		22.8
(73.0) 		22.2
(72.0) 		22.2
(72.0) 		18.3
(64.9) 		12.8
(55.0) 		9.4
(48.9) 		15.8
(60.4)
Source: Khan (2005)[9]

History

[edit]

It has been a warzone between the Arakan Kingdom, Chakma kingdom and the Twipra Kingdom.

In the early 13th century the Chakma people settled from Arakan (Burma) before the Mughal and Bengali people settlement, due to defeat from the Rakhine king. The Chakmas are the single largest indigenous group, comprising half of the indigenous population. The Marma people are the second largest tribe. They came from Burma when Arakan was conquered by Burmese king Bodawpaya. The place was ruled by the Chakma king there was a conflict between the Chakma king and Mughals in which the Chakma king agreed to pay tribute of cotton to the Mughals.[10]

Mughal and early British records name the region Jum Bungoo, Jum mahal or Kapas mahal.[11][12] In 1787, the East India Company made the region its tributary after battling Chakma raja and agreeing on peace treaty.

Under British control, the British East India Company in order to suppress the Chakma queen power Kalindi Rani divided the hills into three parts. This was done in regional areas known as Chakma Circle, Mong Circle, and Bohmong Circle. The early colonial history of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is a record of recurring raids by the eastern hill indigenous (Mizo or Lushai) and of the operations undertaken by the British to repress them.[citation needed]

British rule

[edit]

The use of the name Chittagong for this area dates to the 1860 British annexation of the region, bringing it under the direct control of British India. Situated beyond the inland hills, Chittagong proper is a coastal area in the plains where the British were based. As colonial influence grew, "Chittagong" enlarged as well, expanding eastwards[13] to subsume the Hill Tracts under its revenue-collection territory.[12]

The recorded population increased from 69,607 in 1872 to 101,597 in 1881, to 107,286 in 1891, and to 124,762 in 1901. The census of 1872 was, however, very imperfect, and the actual population growth probably did not exceed what might be expected in a sparsely inhabited but fairly healthy tract.[14]

When the 1901 census was taken there were no towns, and 211 of the villages had populations of less than 500 apiece; only one exceeded 2,000. The population density, excluding the area of uninhabited forest (1,385 square miles), was 33 persons per square mile. There was a little immigration from Chittagong, and a few persons had emigrated to Tripura. The proportion of females to every 100 males was only 90 in the district-born and 83 in the total population. That time Buddhists numbered 100,000, Hindus 50,000, and Muslims 3,000.[15]

End of British rule

[edit]
See also: Radcliffe Line § Chittagong Hill Tracts

Conflict & Persecution

[edit]
Main article: Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict
See also: 2012 Ramu violence

In Bangladesh, the persecution of the indigenous tribes of the Chittagong Hill Tracts such as the Chakma, Marma, Tripura and others who are mainly Buddhists, Hindus, Christians, and Animists, has been described as genocidal.[16][17][18][19][20] The Chittagong Hill Tracts are located bordering India, Myanmar and the Bay of Bengal, and is the home to 500,000 indigenous people. The perpetrators of are the Bangladeshi military and the Bengali Muslim settlers, who together have burned down Buddhist and Hindu temples, killed many Chakmas, and carried out a policy of gang-rape against the indigenous people. There are also accusations of Chakmas being forced to convert to Islam, many of them children who have been abducted for this purpose. The conflict started soon after Bangladeshi independence in 1972 when the Constitution imposed Bengali as the sole official language – with no cultural or linguistic rights to minority populations. Subsequently, the government encouraged and sponsored massive settlement by Bangladeshis in region, which changed the demographics from 98 percent indigenous in 1971 to fifty percent by 2000. The government allocated a full third of the Bangladeshi military to the region to support the settlers, sparking a protracted guerilla war between Hill tribes and the military.[17] During this conflict which officially ended in 1997, and in the subsequent period, a large number of human rights violations against the indigenous peoples have been reported, with violence against indigenous women being particularly extreme.[21][22] Bengali settlers and soldiers have raped native Jumma (Chakma) women "with impunity" with the Bangladeshi security forces doing little to protect the Jummas and instead assisting the rapists and settlers.[23] The Karuna Bihar Buddhist temple was attacked by Bengali settlers.[24]

Chittagong Hill Tracts had 98.5% Buddhist and Hindu population in 1947 during the partition of India.[25] The British gave the Buddhist dominated land to East Pakistan against the principles of partition and against wishes of indigenous people. Chittagong Hill Tracts is the traditional home of the Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Mro, Khumi and other indigenous tribes who mainly practice Buddhism. Successive Pakistan and Bangladeshi governments had been encouraging Muslim migration into the Chittagong Hill Tracts to dilute the indigenous Buddhist population. Indigenous Buddhist people of Chittagong Hill Tracts resisted the colonization of their land by demographic engineering. In response Bangladesh government sent tens of thousands of military personnel to the Chittagong Hill Tracts to protect the Muslim settlers and fight the indigenous resistance movement named Shanti Bahini.

Bangladesh Army in league with the Muslim settlers committed 13 major massacres in the span of 15 years between 1980 and 1995 slaughtering hundreds of indigenous Buddhist people in each massacre.[26] They committed numerous other massacres killing 10 to 20 people since birth of Bangladesh in 1971. Apart from mass killing Bangladesh and Muslim settlers are involved in extrajudicial execution of the indigenous people. Indigenous people are victims of arbitrary arrest and detention. Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers often subject them to severe torture and beating. Indigenous Buddhist women and even minor girls are vulnerable to rape by Muslim settlers and Bangladesh army. Bangladesh army and Muslim settlers had raped thousands of indigenous Buddhist women and girls. Indigenous Buddhist people are subjected to systematic proselytization by the Bangladesh government and many Saudi funded Islamic missionary organizations. Bangladesh army also resort to forcible conversion. Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers destroyed and desecrated hundreds of Buddhist temples in Chittagong Hill Tracts.

Massacres

[edit]

Between 1980 and 1995, Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers committed at least 13 major massacres against the indigenous Buddhist people in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. No military personnel or settler was ever tried for these massacres. The massacres are usually carried out to evict indigenous people from their villages or in retaliation to Shanti Bahini attacks.[27]

Kaukhali Massacre 25 March 1980

The commander of the Bangladesh army at Kaukhali ordered the indigenous Buddhist people to gather at Kaukhali Bazar in the morning of 25 March 1980 to discuss the repair of the Poapara Buddhist Vihara. On 25 March 1980, when indigenous Buddhist people gathered at Kaukhali Bazar, Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers suddenly attacked and massacred an estimated 300 Chakma and Marma Buddhists at Kaukhali in Rangamati district.[27]

Barkal Massacre 31 May 1984

Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers attacked several Buddhist villages of Bhusanchara, Bhusanbagh, Het Baria, Suguri Para, Goranstan, Tarengya Ghat in Barkal and massacred more than 400 Chakma Buddhists. Amnesty International collected 67 names killed in the massacre.[28]

Panchari Massacre 1–2 May 1986

Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers attacked indigenous Buddhist villages of Golakpatimachara, Kalanal, Soto Karmapara, Shantipur, Mirjibil, Hetarachara, Pujgang, Logang, Hathimuktipara, Sarveshwarpara, Napidpara and Dewan Bazar. Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers randomly opened fire on indigenous people massacred hundreds of Chakma Buddhists. Amnesty International collected more than 50 names killed in the massacre.[29]

Matiranga Massacre 1–7 May 1986

Between 1 and 7 May 1986, widespread military operation and persecution forced a group of Tripuri people to take refuge in the jungle between Sarveswarpara and Manudaspara in Matiranga. While they were trying to reach India, Bangladesh Army detected and ambushed them. Bangladesh army massacred at least 60 indigenous Tripuri people.[30]

Matiranga Massacre 18–19 May 1986

To escape systematic persecution, a large group of indigenous Tripuri people were trying to reach India by following jungle trails. However Bangladesh army discovered and surrounded them. Bangladesh army took them to a narrow valley between Comillatila and Taidong in Matiranga. Bangladesh army suddenly opened fire in the restricted space and killed at least 200 indigenous Tripuri people.[31]

Baghaichari Massacre 3–10 August 1988

Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers launched a week long campaign of terror in retaliation for Shanti Bahini attacks on Bangladeshi armed forces and Muslim settlements. Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers attacked Durchari, Khedamara, Battuli, Sarwatuli villages in Baghaichari and murdered more than 500 indigenous Chakma Buddhists.[32]

Langadu Massacre 4 May 1989

Un-identified gunmen murdered a Muslim community leader Abdur Rashid of Langadu. Bangladesh military and civil administration suspected Buddhist resistance movement Shanti Bahini murdered the Muslim leader. Bangladesh Army agitated the Muslim settlers. Muslim settlers attacked the indigenous Buddhist people of Langadu with the encouragement of the Bangladesh military ad civil authorities. More than 50 indigenous Buddhist people were massacred with swords and lances.[33]

Malya Massacre 2 Feb 1992

A commuter ferry loaded with people was sailing from Marishya to Rangamati. A bomb exploded at Malya in Langadu Upazila. According to eyewitnesses, two Bangladesh military personnel planted the bomb. Bangladesh government had settled many Muslim settlers at Malya by displacing indigenous Buddhist people. The survivors of the explosion swam to the shore. But Muslim settlers were waiting for them with weapons and attacked them when reached the shore. More than 30 indigenous Buddhist people were massacred.[34]

Logang Massacre 10 April 1992

2 Muslim settlers armed with swords attempted to rape indigenous Buddhist girls who were grazing cows at Logang in Panchari. An indigenous man defended the girls and was killed in the brawl. The Muslim settler ran to the Bangladesh Army camp and spread the rumor that indigenous people attacked them. In reprisal Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers attacked indigenous people at Logang and massacred more than 500 indigenous people.[35]

Naniachar Massacre 17 November 1993

Indigenous Buddhist people demanded the Bangladesh Army check post at Naniachar in Rangamati be removed. Bangladesh Army often harassed indigenous Buddhist people from the check post at Naniachar Ferry Stoppage. Indigenous Buddhist people gathered at Naniachar Bazar to protest harassment. Muslim settlers with the direct help from the Bangladesh Army attacked the peaceful demonstration of the indigenous people and murdered at least 66 indigenous people.[35]

Unlawful killing

[edit]

Besides mass killing, indigenous Buddhist people are also killed in small numbers by Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers. Most common form of killing occurs when indigenous people are detained and beaten in numerous Bangladeshi military, intelligence and police installations in the CHT. Killings also occur when Bangladesh Army randomly open fire at villagers. Bangladesh Government provides weapons to Muslim settlers and they are also responsible for killing of indigenous people. The Muslim settlers often join the armed forces in raid of indigenous villages and involved in killing indigenous people by firearms or crude sharp weapons. The settlers also take part in communal riots instigated by the Bangladesh Army and kill indigenous Buddhist people.[36]

Detention and torture

[edit]

Indigenous people are detained without warrant and often tortured in the custody of Bangladeshi armed forces. Bangladeshi armed forces detain and torture indigenous Buddhist people on mere suspicion of being members of the Shanti Bahini or helping the Shanti Bahini. There were numerous check posts on highways and ferries in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Bangladeshi armed forces interrogate and detain indigenous travelers from these check posts. Bangladeshi armed forces raid indigenous Buddhist villages and torture indigenous people on suspicion of sheltering and feeding the Shanti Bahini.[37]

Indigenous people who are detained in military camps and cantonments are subjected to severe beating, electrocution, water boarding, hanging upside down, shoving burning cigarettes on bodies etc. Prisoners are detained in pits and trenches. Bangladeshi soldiers sprinkle hot water on indigenous prisoners. Indigenous captives are then taken out for interrogation one at a time. Indigenous people are often tortured during interrogation.

Rape and abduction

[edit]

Bangladesh Government tacitly encourages Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers to rape indigenous girls and women as tool to expel them from their traditional land. As a result, thousands of indigenous girls and women were raped by the armed forces and settlers since independence of Bangladesh in 1971.[38]

Land Grab

[edit]

Since vast majority of the indigenous people are farmers and cultivators, land is very important and only means of survival. The government's sponsored settlement in the CHT dispossessed many indigenous people of their lands.[39]

During the 2012 Ramu violence a 25,000-strong mob set fire to at least five temples and dozens of homes throughout the town and surrounding villages after seeing a picture of an allegedly desecrated Quran, which they claimed had been posted on Facebook by Uttam Barua, a local Buddhist man.[40][41]

Demography

[edit]

Ethnicity

[edit]
Main articles: Ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Jumma people

According to the census of 2022, the population of the Rangamati District, Khagrachhari District, Bandarban District totaled 1,842,815, of whom 920,248 (49.94%) were tribal people. Population of ethnic minorities are: Chakma 454,925, Marma 209,783, Tripura 133,372, Mro 51,724, Tanchangya 42,943, Bom 12,311, Khyang 4,176, Khumi 3,341, Chak 2,725, Pankho 1,458 and Lushei 216. They differ markedly from the Bengali majority of Bangladesh in language, ethnicity and religion. The population density was roughly 140 per square kilometer.[42]

Ethnicity in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (2022)[43]
  1. Bengali (50.06%)
  2. Chakma (24.68%)
  3. Marma (11.38%)
  4. Tripura (7.23%)
  5. Mro (2.8%)
  6. Tanchangya (2.33%)
  7. Bom (0.67%)
  8. Khyang (0.23%)
  9. Khumi (0.18%)
  10. Chak (0.15%)
  11. Pankho (0.08%)
  12. Lushei (0.01%)
  13. Others (0.2%)

Religion

[edit]

According to the 2022 Bangladeshi census, Islam is the largest religion in chittagong hill tracts (44.52%). But, tribes are mainly followers of Buddhism (41.74%).[44]

Religion in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (2022)[45]
  1. Islam (44.52%)
  2. Buddhism (41.74%)
  3. Hinduism (9.18%)
  4. Christianity (3.26%)
  5. Other (1.3%)

Bibliography

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Ghanea, Nazila (2005). Minorities, Peoples and Self-Determination. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 117. ISBN 9004143017.
  2. ^ Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs http://www.mochta.gov.bd/
  3. ^ Chakma, Shantimoy (21 May 2009). "Tobacco cultivation poses threat to environment in CHT". The Daily Star. Rangamati. Retrieved 15 April 2020.
  4. ^ Rasul, 2009.
  5. ^ Rasul and Thapa, 2003. Factors influencing shifting cultivation in South and Southeast Asia
  6. ^ Rasul, 2009
  7. ^ Rasul et al., 2004
  8. ^ https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Chittagong_Hill_Tracts
  9. ^ https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Monthly-maximum-minimum-and-average-temperature-in-Chittagong-Hill-Tracts_tbl1_43562899
  10. ^ "Brief History". CHT Commission. Retrieved 20 September 2024.
  11. ^ Geiger, Danilo (2008). Frontier Encounters: Indigenous Communities and Settlers in Asia and Latin America. International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 487. ISBN 978-87-91563-15-7.
  12. ^ a b Ghanea-Hercock, Nazila; Xanthaki, Alexandra; Thornberry, Patrick (2005). Minorities, Peoples And Self-determination. Martinus Nijhoff. p. 115. ISBN 90-04-14301-7.
  13. ^ International Labour Office (2000). Traditional occupations of indigenous and tribal peoples. International Labour Organization. p. 73. ISBN 978-92-2-112258-6. The Chittagong Hill Tracts is a misnomer. This was the name given to this region after its annexation [...]
  14. ^ "Imperial Gazetteer2 of India, Volume 10, page 319 – Imperial Gazetteer of India – Digital South Asia Library". dsal.uchicago.edu.
  15. ^ "Imperial Gazetteer2 of India, Volume 10, page 320 – Imperial Gazetteer of India – Digital South Asia Library". dsal.uchicago.edu.
  16. ^ Gray 1994.
  17. ^ a b O'Brien 2004.
  18. ^ Mey 1984.
  19. ^ Mohsin 2003.
  20. ^ Roy 2000.
  21. ^ Chakma & Hill 2013.
  22. ^ "Chittagong Hill Tracts: Sabita Chakma's Murder Condemned By CHT Commission". Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. 19 February 2014.
  23. ^ McEvoy, Mark (3 April 2014). "Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh – rapists act with impunity". Survival International - The movement for tribal peoples.
  24. ^ "Chittagong Hill Tracts: Town of Chakma Villagers Attacked and Houses Burned Down". Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. 18 December 2014.
  25. ^ Singh, Deepak K. (2010). Stateless in South Asia The Chakmas Between Bangladesh and India. Sage Publications. p. 33. ISBN 978-8132104940.
  26. ^ IWGIA (2000). Life Is Not Ours. Denmark: The Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission. p. 34.
  27. ^ a b Unlawful Killings in Chittagong Hill Tracts. London, United Kingdom: Amnesty International. 1986. p. 11. ISBN 0862101107.
  28. ^ Unlawful Killings in Chittagong Hill Tracts. London, United Kingdom: Amnesty International. 1986. p. 13. ISBN 0862101107.
  29. ^ Unlawful Killings in Chittagong Hill Tracts. London, United Kingdom: Amnesty International. 1986. p. 15. ISBN 0862101107.
  30. ^ Unlawful Killings in Chittagong Hill Tracts. London, United Kingdom: Amnesty International. 1986. p. 23. ISBN 0862101107.
  31. ^ Unlawful Killings in Chittagong Hill Tracts. London, United Kingdom: Amnesty International. 1986. p. 24. ISBN 0862101107.
  32. ^ Dewan, R.S. (December 1988). "Jana Samhati". Jana Samhati Report. 3 (3): 3, 4, 5.
  33. ^ Dewan, R.S. (September 1989). "Jana Samhati". Jana Samhati Report. 1 (1): 1, 2, 3.
  34. ^ Life Is Not Ours (Update 2 ed.). The Netherlands: The Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission. 1994. p. 20.
  35. ^ a b Life Is Not Ours (Update 2 ed.). Armsterdam: The Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission. April 1994. p. 20.
  36. ^ Bangladesh Unlawful Killings and Torture in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. London, United Kingdom: Amnesty International. September 1986. p. 10. ISBN 0862101107.
  37. ^ Unlawful Killings in Chittagong Hill Tracts. London, United Kingdom: Amnesty International. September 1986. pp. 26–29. ISBN 0862101107.
  38. ^ The Charge of Genocide. The Netherlands: Organizing Committee Chittagong Hill Tracts Campaign. 1986. pp. 66–67.
  39. ^ "Life is Not Ours". Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission. 1 (1): 58–62. May 1991.
  40. ^ "Protesters burn Bangladesh Buddhist temples". Al Jazeera. 30 September 2012.
  41. ^ "Religious attacks lead to 300 arrests in Bangladesh". ABC News. 2 October 2012.
  42. ^ "বাংলাদেশ পরিসংখ্যান ব্যুরো".
  43. ^ "বাংলাদেশ পরিসংখ্যান ব্যুরো".
  44. ^ "Population Census 2022: A CHT demographic analysis". Parbatta News. 19 September 2022. Archived from the original on 26 August 2024.
  45. ^ "Population Census 2022: A CHT demographic analysis". Parbatta News. 19 September 2022.

Sources

[edit]
  • Chakma, Kabita; Hill, Glen (2013). "Indigenous Women and Culture in the Colonized Chittagong Hills Tracts of Bangladesh". In Kamala Visweswaran (ed.). Everyday Occupations: Experiencing Militarism in South Asia and the Middle East. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 132–157. ISBN 978-0812244878.
  • Gray, Richard A. (1994). "Genocide in the Chittagong Hill tracts of Bangladesh". Reference Services Review. 22 (4): 59–79. doi:10.1108/eb049231.
  • O'Brien, Sharon (2004). "The Chittagong Hill Tracts". In Dinah Shelton (ed.). Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes against Humanity. Macmillan Library Reference. pp. 176–177.
  • Mey, Wolfgang, ed. (1984). Genocide in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA).
  • Mohsin, A. (2003). The Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: On the Difficult Road to Peace. Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Roy, Rajkumari (2000). Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs.

Citations

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[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to Chittagong Hill Tracts.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Chittagong Hill Tracts.

22°33′00″N 92°17′00″E / 22.5500°N 92.2833°E / 22.5500; 92.2833

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